Research+on+Language+Learning

Language Acquisition in the first 3 Years of Life
The first 3 years of life, when the brain is developing and maturing, is the most intensive period for acquiring speech and language skills. These skills develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others. There appear to be critical periods for speech and language development in infants and young children when the brain is best able to absorb language. If these critical periods are allowed to pass without exposure to language, it will be more difficult to learn. []

Resource for English vocabulary lists and exercises and activities
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**Looking Closely at Second Language Learning**
[] //An Interview with Shattuck Professor Catherine Snow//  Harvard Graduate School of Education  October 1, 2002

**Q** : Do you believe that the critical period for language acquisition affects one's ability to learn a second language? Might it affect the way in which one learns that second language? **A** : The evidence clearly demonstrates that there is no critical period for second-language learning, that there is no biologically determined constraint on language learning capacity that emerges at a particular age, nor any maturational process which requires that older language learners function differently than younger language learners. There are, however, myriad differences between older and younger learners that play themselves out in second-language learning just as they do in the learning of a musical instrument, a sport, or nuclear physics. For some aspects of learning, older learners have compelling advantages; for others, they have disadvantages. Those advantages and disadvantages emerge as a result of many variables that vary with age. These variables include how much one already knows, how strategic one's learning can be, how embarrassed one is about making errors, etc., and are not biologically determined.

Catherine Snow is an expert on language and literacy development in children, focusing on how oral language skills are acquired and how they relate to literacy outcomes. Snow has chaired two national panels: the National Academy of Sciences committee that prepared the report "Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children," and the Rand Reading Study Group that prepared "Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension." Her research activities include a longitudinal study of language and literacy skills among low-income children who have been followed for 15 years since age three; following the language development of young children participating in the Early Head Start intervention; studying the vocabulary development of first- and second-language learners; and considering aspects of transfer from first to second language in the domains of language and literacy. Her book, //Preparing Our Teachers: Opportunities for Better Reading Instruction,// is one of several efforts she is involved in to develop consensus among teacher-educators about what pre- and in-service elementary teachers need to know about language and literacy. Snow has also written about bilingualism and its relation to language policy issues such as bilingual education in the United States and in developing nations, and about testing policy. She is currently involved in efforts to improve middle-school literacy outcomes, in partnership with other Boston area researchers and the Boston Public Schools. Degree: Ph.D., McGill University

=Principles of Instructed Second Language Acquisition= [] //The Center for Applied Linguistics// //Rod Ellis, Professor, University of Auckland, New Zealand// //2008 Ferguson Fellow, Center for Applied Linguistics//

Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form Principle 4: Instruction needs to focus on developing implicit knowledge of the second language while not neglecting explicit knowledge Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s built-in syllabus Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive second language input Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the second language is central to developing second language proficiency Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners Principle 10: In assessing learners’ second language proficiency, it is important to examine free as well as controlled production

=**Singable Books: Sing and Read Your Way to English Proficiency**= []  The Center for Applied Linguistics //Betty Ansin Smallwood, Center for Applied Linguistics//  //Erin Flynn Haynes, University of California, Berkeley//

 Teachers regularly use reading aloud to bond with students, generate conversation, and introduce the joys of literacy. Reading aloud offers additional benefits for English language learners, including introduction to new vocabulary and English grammar (Ghosn, 2002; Smallwood, 1991). However, these benefits vary with the method of delivery (Teale, 2003). This digest introduces an easy, effective method of reading aloud using singable books. Although this digest focuses on English language learners, the use of singable books can benefit all students.  Smallwood (2006) defines singable books as picture books that use a song as the text. Singable books are inherently interactive and appealing to children. The melody is often familiar to American-born teachers, but in any event, the musical notation and all the words are usually included at the end of the book. Pictures help illustrate the text of the song. And the teacher does not have to be a great (or even a good) singer to succeed with this method, as the authors of this digest can testify!

Singable books provide a simple, cost-effective way to combine the benefits of reading children’s literature aloud and singing for English language learners, as illustrated in the Venn diagram in Figure 1. The benefits of using children’s literature include increased vocabulary and phonemic awareness, which are especially important for literacy development in English language learners (August & Shanahan, 2006), linking the circles for children’s literature and for English language and literacy acquisition in Figure 1. Singing, the third circle, introduces musical benefits for English language learners (ELLs), including increased motivation (e.g., Kennedy & Scott, 2005), enhanced neurological effects, and fluency development.
 * Benefits of Singable Books**

Understanding Assessment: A Guide for Foreign Language Educators
[] The Center for Applied Linguistics

CAL has developed an online tutorial to serve as a companion resource to the FLAD. This online tutorial introduces key concepts in language testing to help with selecting tests and using test results appropriately and efficiently. Topics covered include: A list of assessment resources and a glossary of assessment terms are also included in the tutorial.
 * practical considerations when selecting a test,
 * reliability and validity,
 * the use of test results, and,
 * the impact of testing in the classroom.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">[] <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> The mission of the National Network for Early Language Learning is to provide leadership in support of successful early language learning and teaching. Since its founding in 1987, NNELL continues to be an invaluable resource for educators, parents and policymakers advocating for K-8 programs of excellence in second language education.
 * NNELL's Mission**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">NNELL believes that all elementary school students should have access to high quality, ongoing and systematic world language instruction. This belief is based on research that indicates:
 * NNELL's Core Beliefs**


 * <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">T<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">he period of early childhood is considered an optimal time to begin learning a second language, as the methods and materials used in early childhood classes are multi-modal and may facilitate second language acquisition and learning (Bialystok, & Hakuta, 1994).


 * Children in effective early second language programs show overall gains on standardized tests of basic skills, and derive additional cognitive, social, and affective benefits (Taylor- Ward, 2003).


 * The integration of content and language learning and the development of positive attitudes towards people who speak other languages occur more easily when long, articulated sequences of second language instruction begin in early childhood and become an integral part of school learning (Shrum & Glisan, 2005).


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Early second language learning may result in improved phonological and phonemic awareness, two building blocks of literacy in one’s native language (Bialystok, 2001).

The Correlation between Early Second Language Learning and Native Language Skill Development
[]Therese Caccavale, <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">National Network for Early Language Learning President

It has long been the assumption of many in the field of second language teaching thatlearning a second language helps to promote and enhance native language skill development,and that this correlation is direct and positive. Language professionals have assumedthat learning a second language directly supports the development of better skills, overall,in one’s first language. Evidence supports the assertion that students who study a secondlanguage score higher on verbal sections of the SAT than students who do not. A review ofthe current research related to second language acquisition in children can offer new insightsinto this seemingly direct relationship.

"Ensuring America's Place in the Global Economy by Building Language Capacity in the Schools."
[] American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages President, Rita Oleksak's Testimony to the US Senate:

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Helvetica; font-size: small; line-height: normal;"> http://www.actfl.org

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Helvetica; text-align: left;">The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) is the only national organization dedicated to the improvement and expansion of the teaching and learning of all languages at all levels of instruction. ACTFL is an individual membership organization of more than 9,000 foreign language educators and administrators from elementary through graduate education, as well as government and industry. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Helvetica; font-size: small; line-height: normal;">Since its founding, ACTFL has become synonymous with innovation, quality, and reliability in meeting the changing needs of foreign language educators and their students. From the development of Proficiency Guidelines, to its leadership role in the creation of national standards, ACTFL focuses on issues that are critical to the growth of both the profession and the individual teacher. Through their membership, new as well as veteran teachers are making an important investment in the future.

=The Modern Language Association Language Map=

A Map of Languages in the United States
[]The MLA Language Map is intended for use by students, teachers, and anyone interested in learning about the linguistic and cultural composition of the United States. The MLA Language Map uses data from the 2000 United States census to display the locations and numbers of speakers of thirty languages and three groups of less commonly spoken languages in the United States. The census data are based on responses to the question, "Does this person speak a language other than English at home?" The Language Map illustrates the concentration of language speakers in zip codes and counties. The Language Map Data Center provides data from Census 2000 about over three hundred languages spoken in the United States, including actual numbers and percentages of speakers. Data from the 2005 American Community Survey about the thirty languages most commonly spoken in the United States provide a snapshot of recent changes in American language communities.